To every work of architecture, there is a what, and there is a why. The what pertains to its tangible characteristics. The why pertains to the intangible reasons, ideas, beliefs, and ideals that condition every work of architecture and transform the work into a cultural artifact.

Every work of architecture is essentially a composition, i.e., it is comprised of distinct parts placed in a particular relationship to each other for a particular purpose. Understanding a work of architecture requires, first and foremost, an analysis of the work. It entails separating and identifying its constituent parts and their specific relationship to each other and the whole work, e.g., the specific relationship between solids and voids, horizontals and verticals, of the inside to the outside, of structure to skin, of the building to its site, ornamentation, articulation, etc. This is, however, merely a first step. The more important step in understanding a work of architecture is the why of the work.

From a certain vantage point, architecture is an impossible task. Faced with multiple possibilities, the architect has no ground for the delimitation of her/his options. The functions of an edifice suggest no one form and much less a direction. In deference to biological needs, function is nebulous and multi-directional. However, function assumes a trajectory and becomes highly prescriptive when it is appropriated by culture and transformed into a ritual. Though by no means singular, a ritual is distinct and unidirectional. It has unique spatial requirements. It demands a specific setting. It is this and similar prescriptive cultural appropriations that make architecture possible.

Every work of architecture points to a process of delimitation intended to express a particular cultural proposition, theorem, or thesis. As such, every work of architecture serves to transform a culture’s assumptions about the world into a factual experience of them. The work shapes the world, in other words, after our image of it. In this process, economy, ecology, and technology play an important role. They make the realization of certain dreams possible and others not. The shape any work of architecture takes is invariably conditioned by the interaction of these three forces within the broader cultural context.

Therefore, to understand the why of any work of architecture is to understand the cultural rituals it is meant to provide for, the cultural experiences it is meant to instigate, and the ideas, ideals, and beliefs it is meant to embody and express.

Therefore, to understand the why of any work of architecture is to understand the cultural rituals it is meant to provide for, the cultural experiences it is meant to instigate, and the ideas, the ideals, the beliefs it is meant to embody and express.

Throughout the term, we will address both the what and the why of every work of architecture we examine. Lectures will specifically emphasize the why. Your aim throughout the term should be to understand architecture in the sense explained above. In this vein, the point and purpose of the three required exams for this course are not to test your command of the facts, names, dates, and places, per se. Although you are expected to command the facts fully, the exams are intended to test your understanding of architecture. Mere and passive acquisition and repetition of information are not what is at issue. The exams are meant to test your active engagement with and the ability to comprehend and effectively synthesize diverse bodies of information and points of view provided in the lectures and reading assignments. They are meant to foster your ability to effectively analyze and hierarchically organize this information into a coherent and multi-layered picture encompassing both the what and the why of architecture.

For each exam, you will be presented with multiple questions and asked to ascertain the accuracy of each.

For each exam, you’ll be presented with multiple questions and asked to ascertain the accuracy of each.

You will complete each exam online at Canvas during class time on the following dates:

Exam 1: Monday, March 2, 2026

Exam 2: Wednesday, Apri 1, 2026

Exam 3: Monday, May 11, 2026

All due dates should be strictly observed. In fairness to all, exceptions will only be made due to medical or personal emergencies.

The exams will each count for one-fourth of the final grade.

Your success in this class depends on constant and effective engagement with the course material. To this end, you must complete the assigned readings prior to each class and write a one to two-page synopsis of the material covered in lectures and assigned readings for each week. These will be of great help to you in answering the exam questions. Make sure you do not fall behind in completing your weekly reading assignments at all costs. Given the complexity and scope of the material covered, you will not be able to comprehend and effectively answer the exam questions if you do not complete your weekly assignments on time.

Exam Grade

If your exam score is 93 or higher, you will receive an A for the exam. If your exam score is 89 to 92, you will receive an A- for the exam. If your exam score is 85 to 88, you will receive a B+ for the exam. If your exam score is 81 to 84, you will receive a B for the exam. If your exam score is 78 to 80, you will receive a B- for the exam. If your exam score is 75 to 77, you will receive a C+ for the exam. If your exam score is 71 to 74, you will receive a C for the exam. If your exam score is 68 to 70, you will receive a C- for the exam. If your exam score is 65 to 67, you will receive a D+ for the exam. If your exam score is 61 to 64, you will receive a D for the exam. If your exam score is 58 to 60, you will receive a D- for the exam. If your exam score is less than 58, you will receive an F for the exam.

WEEKLY ASSIGNMENTS
          

Your success in this course depends on constant and effective engagement with the course material. To this end, you must complete the assigned readings before each class. You are also required to write a one to two-page synopsis of the material covered in the lectures for each week. These will help you prepare for each exam. 

For your weekly assignments, please focus on the lecture content and the above-referenced why of the architecture discussed in the lectures. You do not need to address every building presented or reiterate the place, date, or related factual information about any building.  You should not quote or reference the reading assignments or any external sources. The synopsis should be entirely in your own words. 

Please choose two or more exemplary buildings from the week’s lectures and discuss their significance and contribution to the architecture of their epoch.  Broadly and in no particular order:

What were the ideas and theories behind these buildings? 

What were the cultural beliefs and rituals these buildings embodied? 

In what ways are these buildings with their unique characteristics emblematic of their epoch?

In what ways did these buildings shape and/or advance the architecture of their epoch? 

You must submit your weekly assignments on Canvas each Monday before class in Word or PDF format. Please label your file using your name, e.g., JaneDoe.doc or .pdf.

All due dates should be strictly observed. In fairness to all, exceptions will only be made in cases of medical or personal emergencies.

Each missed or incomplete assignment will lead to a 10% reduction in the final tallied weekly assignment grade.

Before submitting your weekly assignment, please have your paper proofread by Grammarly. It is a free online service at https://www.grammarly.com.

The weekly assignments will be marked as complete or incomplete, depending on the rigor and thoroughness of the synopsis.

Submitting an AI-generated essay as one’s own is plagiarism. It is subject to all University policies on plagiarism and can lead to dismissal from the university, in addition to a failing grade for the course.

Extra Credit Term Paper

If you wish to complete this assignment, you need to let me know by April 6. 

From the various traditions covered in the course, you may choose a building that is of particular interest to you. The task is then fourfold:

Research the history of the development of the building and its design, including the various architectural issues and concerns, ideas, and ideals that conditioned the design of this and other buildings of its generation.

Research the cultural, social, political, and economic context within which and in response to which this building was developed.

Research and analyze the particular formal characteristics of the building you have chosen in light of the above research. This entails a careful analysis of the overall spatial organization, the relationship of the parts to the whole, of solids to voids, of volume to mass, of the inside to the outside, as well as the particular expressions of structure and material, and the particular articulation of surface, proportion, scale, and so on.

Formulate and present a concise discussion of your research, whereby you demonstrate the integral relationship between the formal attributes of your chosen building and the theoretical concerns and ideals of its architect and his or her generation as this relationship is established and developed in response to the particular demands of a specific social, cultural, economic, and political context.

Your paper should be approximately 4500 words, excluding bibliography and images. It should, therefore, be well organized, concisely written, and economically worded. Every quotation should be identified as such and properly credited. Quotations should not exceed 10% of the paper. Footnotes should appear on the same page, and the bibliography should be placed on the last page, in MLA format. The paper, on the whole, should demonstrate extensive research that goes beyond the assigned readings and lecture material, as well as a thorough understanding of the chosen architectural period.

Your research should be based exclusively on peer-reviewed academic journals and book publications. Your research should not be based on nonacademic web sources, travel guides, etc.

The paper is due Wednesday, May 13, 2026.

Before submitting your paper, please have it proofread by Grammarly. It is a free online service at https://www.grammarly.com.

Please submit your term paper online at Canvas as a Microsoft Word or PDF document.  Please label your file using your name, e.g., JaneDoe.docx.

Evaluation Criteria

Your paper will be evaluated based on the following criteria. Please make sure you effectively address each criterion in your paper.

How well does the paper evidence a clear understanding of the history of the development of the building and its design?

How well does the paper evidence a clear understanding and explanation of the various architectural issues and concerns, ideas, and ideals that conditioned the design of this and other buildings of its generation?

How well does the paper evidence a clear understanding and explanation of the cultural, social, political, and economic context within which and in response to which the building was developed?

How well does the paper provide a careful and analytical discussion of the formal attributes of the building?

How well does the paper demonstrate the integral relationship between the formal attributes of the building and the theoretical concerns and ideals of its architect and his or her generation?

How well does the paper analyze and discuss the link between the formal and theoretical attributes of the building and the specific social, cultural, economic, and political context of the building's development?

How well does the paper demonstrate extensive research above and beyond the assigned readings and lecture material?

Is the paper content well organized, logically sequenced, and coherently presented?

Are there any errors of fact in the paper?

Are there grammatical and spelling errors?

The paper will be assigned a numeric grade from 1 to 5 based on the criteria 1 through 8. An excellent and exemplary response to a criterion will receive a 5. A very good and comprehensive response will receive a 4. A satisfactory response will receive a 3. An incomplete response will receive a 2. An unsatisfactory response will result in a score of 1.

The paper will receive an A if the average of all the numeric grades is between 4.6 and 5. The paper will receive an A- if the average of all the numeric grades is between 4.3 and 4.6. If the average of all the numeric grades is between 4 and 4.3, the paper will receive a B+. The paper will receive a B if the average of all the numeric grades is between 3.7 and 4. The paper will receive a B- if the average of all the numeric grades is between 3.3 and 3.7. If the average of all the numeric grades is between 3 and 3.3, the paper will receive a C+. The paper will receive a C if the average of all the numeric grades is between 2.7 and 3. The paper will receive a C- if the average of all the numeric grades is between 2.3 and 2.7. If the average of all the numeric grades is between 2 and 2.3, the paper will receive a D+. If the average of all the numeric grades is between 1.7 and 2, the paper will receive a D. If the average is between 1.3 and 1.7, the paper will receive a D-. The paper will receive an F if the average of all the numeric grades is less than 1.7.